studies in different scientific domains. Over the years
resocialization and prison treatment programs.
sparked increasing research interest. RST represents a
rewarding stimuli. The theory was substantially revised
in 2000 by Gray and McNaughton (4). The revised
Behavioural Approach System (BAS). RST thus
significant (i.e., ‘reinforcing’) stimuli (5).
The Fight-Flight-Freeze System (FFFS) is responsible
for mediating fear reactions to aversive (threatening,
punishing or frustrating) stimuli, leading to avoidance
and escape behaviours or attempted elimination (anger
and attack). FFFS activity reduces the discrepancy
between the immediate threat and the desired state (i.e.,
safety). An associated personality factor with this
system comprises fear-proneness and avoidance.
The Behavioural Inhibition System (BIS) is responsible
for resolving different types of goal conflicts when
facing desired but also potentially threatening stimuli.
This system generates the emotion of anxiety, that is
primarily involved in inhibition of conflicting
behaviours and risk assessment. The BIS increases the
negative valence of stimuli, until a behavioural
resolution occurs manifested as approach or avoidance.
The associated personality factor comprises worry proneness and anxious rumination, resulting in a
constant state of looking-out for possible signs of
danger. Underactive BIS leads to risk proneness (e.g.,
psychopathy) while overactive BIS leads to risk
aversion (generalized anxiety). Both conditions
encompass sub-optimal conflict resolution. The BIS
serves several functions: it interrupts ongoing
behaviour (it inhibits ongoing appetitively and
aversively-motivated behaviours); it initiates ‘passive
avoidance’, i.e. cautious approach and risk assessment
aimed at gathering information on the threat posed by
the environment or, in some situations, withholding
from entry into a threatening environment. Other
processes associated with the BIS, are worry and
rumination about possible danger; obsessive thoughts
about the possibility of something unpleasant
happening; and behavioural disengagement, when the
threat is unavoidable.
The Behavioural Approach System (BAS) mediates
reactions to appetitive stimuli. This system generates
the emotion of ‘anticipatory pleasure’. The associated
personality factor comprises optimism, reward
orientation and impulsiveness. An overactive BAS
delineates a disposition toward addictive, high-risk and
impulsive patterns of behaviour. Corr (5) proposes a
multidimensional conceptualization of distinct but
related BAS processes: Reward Interest represents the
initial motivation to seek out potentially rewarding places, activities and people; Goal Drive-Persistence
relates to actively pursuing desired goals, particularly
when immediate reward is not available; Reward-
Reactivity denotes the excitement and pleasure of
doing things well; and Impulsivity entails behaviours
closer to the final goal (reinforcer), when planning and
restraint of behaviour are no longer present.
According to RST, differences in human temperament
and reactivity can be explained by individual
differences in the functioning of the three systems and
their interaction (6). BAS and BIS are reciprocally
connected, each operating to inhibit behaviour
governed by the other. A balance between the systems
can be achieved only at low levels of activity in both.
Corr and McNaughton (7) point out that joint
activation of these systems increases arousal as a result
of conflicting motivations, resulting in subtractive
decision-making. However, one overactive system with
a deficient other poses a high risk for social adjustment
as well.
Empirical studies show that an overactive BIS leads to
social withdrawal and emotional distress and an
overactive BAS leads to risky, antisocial behaviour (8).
Dysinhibition, as a prominent feature of criminal
behaviour (9) can also result from an overactive BIS,
an underactive BIS, or a BAS that is more active than
the BIS (10). Research also shows that two BAS
dimensions, impulsivity and reward interest, are often
confirmed risk factors of antisocial and criminal
behaviour (11,12,13).
Studies also demonstrate that antisocial individuals are
less sensitive to punishment (underactive BIS) and
highly sensitive to rewards (overactive BAS). The
rewarding effect stems from the execution of the
offense (14). For example, Morgan, Bowen, Moore and
van Goozen (15) found higher BAS and lower BIS
sensitivity in male adolescent offenders as compared to
non-offenders. Bacon, Corr and Satchell (16) have
further found that antisocial behaviour is associated
with goal-drive persistence in males and impulsivity in
females. Investigating the associations between the
motivational systems and psychopathic tendencies,
Broerman, Ross and Corr (17) report that primary
psychopathy is negatively related to the BIS and the
FFFS, while positively related to BAS goal-drive persistence. Secondary psychopathy is positively
related to BAS impulsivity. The FFFS was found to be
incrementally predictive of primary but not secondary
psychopathy. Leue, Brocke, & Hoyer (18) compared
male sex offenders and non-offenders and found that
higher reward sensitivity, impulsivity and anxiety
discriminated the offenders from the non-offenders.
Previously mentioned studies on RST and crime have
mostly been focused on characteristics that distinguish
offenders from non-offenders. Less frequent is the
more refined comparison of offenders who have
committed different types of crimes. But as Canter and
Youngs (19) point out assigning offenders to a
particular type of criminality has to take into
consideration the context of the crime and the stage in
the offender’s criminal and psychological
development.
Considering the lack of empirical research in offending
subgroups our study aims to examine whether RST
facets can differentiate reoffenders from primary
offenders and violent from nonviolent offenders.
Method
Participants and procedure
The participants are male offenders (N=162)
incarcerated in three penitentiary institutions in
Macedonia: Penitentiary facilities Idrizovo and Stip,
and Kumanovo Prison. These are institutions with
largest accommodation capacities. The first two are
closed institutions, while the third one is semi-open.
The average age of the participants is 36 years (±10.5,
age range: 18-65), while the average age when they
committed the currently sanctioned offense is 31 years
(±9.9). Most of the offenders are Ethnic Macedonians
(77%), have secondary education (52%), were
employed prior to incarceration (74%) and are not
married (46%). As part of their resocialization process
most of the offenders (59%) have certain working
engagements inside the penitentiary facility. On
average, the duration of the prison sentence in the
sample is just over seven years (87 months, range: 6-
300 months, 3 offenders were serving a lifetime
sentence). Regarding offending type, 64 participants
are reoffenders (penal recidivists) and 69 are violent offenders. We used the official prison records to split
the offenders in groups. No significant differences
were detected regarding sociodemographic
characteristics in offender subgroups (age, education,
marital and previous work status). With respect to
criminological characteristics, the only significant
difference was detected between violent and nonviolent
offenders, regarding sentence length, which is
an expected finding due to the nature of the criminal
acts (Мv = 8.6 ± 4.9 years > Мnv = 6.3 ± 3.8 years , t
(117) = 3.27, p < 0.01). A detailed description of the
sample is provided in Table 1. with respect to
convicted crime categorization. The criminal acts were
categorized according to the Criminal Code of
R.Macedonia.
SNIP 0.059
SJR 0.13
h5-index 7
Google-based impact factor: 0.68
